Answers to last issue's Do You Know?

1. How fast is the Earth moving? 
Ans: This question can be meaningfully answered only if you ask back, "Compared to what?". All questions about motion need a {\em frame of reference}. If I am moving, and you are moving faster than me, we can talk of your relative speed with respect to me. 
Consider the movement of the Earth's surface with respect to the planet's centre. The Earth rotates once every 23 hours, 56 minutes and 4.09053 seconds, called the sidereal period, and its circumference is roughly 40,075 kilometers. Thus, the surface of the Earth at the equator moves at a speed of 460 meters per second (can you work this out?)
At school, we learn that the Earth is moving about our Sun in a very nearly circular orbit. It covers this route at a speed of nearly 30 kilometers per second. In addition, our solar system -- with the Earth and everything else -- whirls around the centre of our galaxy at some 220 kilometers per second. As we consider increasingly large size scales, the speeds involved become truly huge!
Each of the motions described above were given relative to some structure. Our motion about our Sun was described relative to our Sun. The question arises: Is there some universal frame of reference relative to which we can define the motions of all things? The answer may have been provided by the Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) satellite.
In 1989, the COBE satellite was placed in orbit about the Earth (again, the Earth is the frame of reference!) to measure what is known as the cosmic microwave background radiation (CBR) that remains from the immensely hot and dense primordial fireball that was produced in the early Universe. The CBR presently pervades all of space. It is the equivalent of the entire universe "glowing with heat."
One of COBE's discoveries was that the Earth was moving with respect to this CBR with a well-defined speed and direction. Because the CBR permeates all space, we can finally answer the original question fully, using the CBR as the frame of reference.
The Earth is moving with respect to the CBR at a speed of 390 kilometers per second. We can also specify the direction relative to the CBR. It is more fun, though, to look up into the night sky and find the constellation known as Leo (the Lion). The Earth is moving toward Leo at the dizzying speed of 390 kilometers per second. It is fortunate that we won't hit anything out there during any of our lifetimes! 

2. Is it true that hot water freezes faster than cold water or that cold water boils faster than hot water?
Ans: No, cold water does not boil faster than hot water. Cold water absorbs heat heat faster while it is still cold; once it gets up to the temperature of hot water, the heating rate slows down and from there it takes just as long to bring it to a boil as the water that was hot to begin with. Because it takes cold water some time to reach the temperature of hot water, cold water clearly takes longer to boil than hot water does. As a general answer, note that the rate of heating of a liquid depends on the temperature difference between the liquid and its surroundings; in fact it depends on the fourth power of this temperature.
Then why do many people think that cold water boils faster than hot water? Cold water starts boiling sooner than one might expect because of the greater heat absorption rate we mentioned, and this gives such a feeling.
Does hot water freeze faster than cold water? Not usually, but possibly under certain conditions. It all depends on how fast the cooling occurs, and it turns out that hot water will not freeze before cold water but will freeze before lukewarm water. Water at 100 degrees C, for example, will freeze before water warmer than 60 degrees C but not before water cooler than 60 degrees C.
We know that water boils at 100 degrees Celsius. It takes 100 calories to bring one gram of liquid water from 0 degrees Celsius to 100 degrees C (1 calorie per degree). However, it takes another 540 calories to convert the gram of water at 100 degrees to steam by vapourizing it. When water is hotter than 80 degrees C, parts of it vapourize. The energy needed to vapourize (540 calories per gram) is taken from the remaining water, so this cools rapidly. When water is colder than 80 degrees, very little of it vapourizes. So when it is left alone, it simply cools by thermal conduction (its heat is given away to its surroundings such as its container). This just needs 1 calorie per Celsius degree and so is a much slower process than the rapid cooling of the water that was at 80 degrees.

3. Do humans have some kind of homing instinct, possibly involving navigation by magnetism like certain birds do?
Ans: Sadly, no. There has been a lot of research on this but there is no conclusive evidence that human beings have any homing instinct like some birds seem to have.
Having a magnetic compass sense is not equivalent to having a homing instinct, because knowing which way is north does you no good if you do not know whether you are north, south, east or west of home. Many animals, including humans, keep track of where they are (and hence the direction to home) by a method known as dead reckoning: as they move about, they keep track of each individual movement, adding these up to derive their net change in position. 
Dr Patricia Sharp and her team at Yale University, USA, have detected many navigational systems in rats, though. When a rat is placed in a large recording chamber and allowed to forage for food, there are cells in some parts of the brain that fire whenever the rat faces one particular direction. It does not matter where the rat is in the chamber; whenever it faces in that direction, those cells fire like crazy. Each of the head-direction cells has its own, unique directional preference, so that the direction the rat faces at any given moment is signaled by the firing of some particular combination of these cells. 
Do human beings possess such systems ? Nobody knows, as yet.

4. Can a pocket laser pointer damage the eye? 
Ans: Eye damage from a pocket laser is unlikely, but could be possible under certain conditions. Red laser pointers that are "properly labeled" in the 3-5 mW range seem to be safe but green lasers may exceed safety limits. Many laser pointers are in the range of 1 to 5 milliwatts (mW) and are mostly safe.
Why even worry about 5 mW (5 thousandths of a watt), which is less than one percent of one percent of the power of a 60 Watt incandescent bulb? 
First, the numbers are used differently. Light bulb wattage measures the power it uses. It only converts about 10 percent of that electrical power into light. In a laser, the power is a measure of the light output.
Second, the light bulb gives light in all directions so you only see a small part of the whole. As you move away from the bulb, you see a quarter of the light every time the distance is doubled. A laser gives light in one small beam. If it gets into the eye, you receive all the laser's energy, not just a fraction of it.
Third, a light bulb gives off light at many different wavelengths (different photon energies). A laser is a pure tone, only one wavelength. The coherent light is more damaging. 
The common red laser pointer is a diode laser, really just a special type of transistor, or diode. Because of the unique features of laser light, it is magnified by 100,000 times as it passes through the eye. The light passes to the back part of the eye, the retina, which is where we perceive vision. The eye actually sees a small part of the electromagnetic spectrum that runs from short cosmic ray energies to long radiowaves. We see only from violet to red. Infrared (IR) and ultraviolet (UV) are just outside our ability to see. The eye is most sensitive to yellow-green light (550 nm). At the same power, 670 nm red light is only 3 percent as bright. 
The real danger is that a regular pointer laser can overwhelm the eye with light, typically called flash blindness. Some basic rules with lasers: Never direct a beam onto another person, especially their face. Do not shine it onto a mirror or mirror-like surface. Do not look at the beam through binoculars or a microscope. 

5. How are traits passed on through DNA ?
Ans: Proteins do much of the chemical work inside cells, so they largely determine what those traits are. But those proteins owe their existence to the DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), so we need to understand them.
The best place to start with is its basic building blocks. DNA consists of four different sugars that interact with each other in specific ways. These four sugars are called nucleotide bases and have the names adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C) and guanine (G). Think of these four bases as letters in an alphabet, the alphabet of life!
In this language, there are words like GATCATCCG: we now have a little piece of DNA, or a very short word. A much longer piece of DNA can be seen as connecting words to make a sentence, or gene, that describes how to build a protein. And a still longer piece of DNA could contain information about when that protein should be made. All the DNA in a cell gives us enough words and sentences to serve as a master description or blueprint for a human (or an animal, a plant, or a microorganism).
Actually it is all more complicated, but this is the idea. In practice, active stretches of DNA must be copied as a similar message molecule called RNA. The words in the RNA then need to be "read" to produce the proteins, which are themselves stretches of words made up of a different alphabet, the amino acid alphabet. The "Central Dogma" of heredity says that the DNA code turns into an RNA message that has the ability to organize 20 amino acids into a complex protein: DNA -> RNA -> Protein.
To understand how this all comes together, consider the trait for brown eyes. DNA for a brown-eyes gene is copied as a brown-eyes RNA message. That message is then translated into the brown protein pigments found in the cells of the eye. For every trait we have -- eye colour, skin colour and so on -- there is a gene or group of genes that controls the trait by producing first the message and then the protein. Sperm cells and eggs cells are specialized to carry DNA in such a way that, at fertilization, a new individual with traits from both its mother and father is created. 

6. How do frogs survive winter in very cold countries? Why don't they freeze to death?
Ans: Frogs are amazing animals, yes. They can be found at the Arctic Circle, in deserts, in tropical rain forests and practically everywhere in between. Some of their survival strategies are nothing short of ingenious. Various frog species use two strategies to deal with environmental extremes: hibernation and estivation. 
Hibernation is a common response to the cold winter of temperate climates. After an animal finds or makes a living space (hibernaculum) that protects it from winter weather and predators, the animal's metabolism slows dramatically, so it can "sleep away" the winter by utilizing its body's energy stores. When spring weather arrives, the animal "wakes up" and leaves its hibernaculum to get on with the business of feeding and breeding. 
Estivation is similar to hibernation. It is a dormant state an animal assumes in response to adverse environmental conditions, in this case, the prolonged dry season of certain tropical regions. 
Terrestrial frogs normally hibernate on land. American toads (Bufo americanus) and other frogs that are good diggers burrow deep into the soil, safely below the frost line. Some frogs, such as the wood frog (Rana sylvatica) and the spring peeper (Hyla crucifer), are not adept at digging and instead seek out deep cracks and crevices in logs or rocks, or just dig down as far as they can in the leaf litter. These hibernacula are not as well protected from frigid weather and may freeze, along with their inhabitants. 
And yet the frogs do not die. Why? Ice crystals form in such places such as the body cavity and bladder and under the skin, but a high concentration of glucose in the frog's vital organs prevents freezing. A partially frozen frog will stop breathing, and its heart will stop beating. It will appear quite dead. But when the hibernaculum warms up above freezing, the frog's frozen portions will thaw, and its heart and lungs resume activity -- there really is such a thing as the living dead! 
Aquatic frogs such as the leopard frog (Rana pipiens) and American bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) typically hibernate underwater, in mud. They must be near oxygen-rich water and spend a good portion of the winter just lying on top of the mud or only partially buried. They may even slowly swim around from time to time. 
Several species of frog are known to estivate. Two of the better-known species are the ornate horned frog (Ceratophrys ornata) from South America and the African bullfrog (Pyxicephalus adspersus). When the dry season starts, these frogs burrow into the soil and become dormant. During the extended dry season, which can last several months, these frogs perform a neat trick: they shed several intact layers of skin, forming a virtually waterproof cocoon that envelopes the entire body, leaving only the nostrils exposed, which allows them to breathe. These mummies remain in their cocoons for the duration of the dry season. When the rains return, the frogs free themselves of their shrouds and make their way up through the moist soil to the surface. 
Next time you meet a frog, show it some respect !